Epinephrine and norepinephrine are hormones and neurotransmitters that help the body respond to stress or fear. Epinephrine increases heart rate and opens airways during emergencies. Norepinephrine ...

As a neuromodulator, norepinephrine is a powerful force in the brain. We all know it orchestrates rapid changes in behavior such as the fight-or-flight response. Fewer people know that astrocytes ...